Answer to Question 1
Hinduism is markedly different from the religions of the West. It identifies the sacred not as a superhuman personality, but as an objective, all-pervading Cosmic Spirit called Brahman.Pantheism, the belief that divinity is inherent in all things, is basic to the Hindu view that the universe itself is sacred. While neither polytheistic nor monotheistic in the traditional sense, Hinduism embraces all the Vedic gods, a multitude of deities who are to this day perceived as emanations of the divine. Hindu religious texts, such as the Upanishads, teach enlightenment through meditation.
Unlike the nature deities of Mesopotamia and Egypt, Brahman is infinite, formless, and ultimately unknowable. While Mesopotamians and ancient Egyptians regarded human beings as separate from the gods, Hindus, guided by the Upanishads and the Bhagavad-Gita, asserted the oneness of matter and spirit. Unlike the Hebrew Yahweh, Brahman assumes no personal and contractual relationship with humankind. Brahman is the Uncaused Cause and the Ultimate Reality.
Answer to Question 2
As in Mesopotamia and Egypt, China's royal tombs were filled with treasuresa vast array of ritual and grave goods that include silk fabrics, ceramic sculptures, jade artifacts, bronze vessels, and objects of personal adornment, from which we can learn about their society and culture.
During the Shang dynasty, a special group of priests had the responsibility for foretelling future events: whether the harvest would be bountiful, whether to declare or delay war, and so on. Shang diviners etched such questions with sharp tools on turtle shells and animal bones. These were then heated to produce cracks that the priests might read and interpret. This oracle bone script discloses intriguing details about weather, disease, and other routine topics relating to ancient Chinese life. The Chinese technique for writing script, known as calligraphy, eventually evolved to become an art form in itself. The characters of calligraphy grew to some 4,500 characters, many of which are still used today.
During the Zhou dynasty, rulers codified the Mandate of Heaven.The rebel Zhou clan justified their assault on the Shang by claiming that Shang kings had failed to rule virtuously and that Heaven (Tian) had withdrawn its mandate. Charged with maintaining the will of Heaven on earth, the king's political authority required obedience to established moral law, which, in turn, reflected the natural order.
Also at this time, the Chinese believed that nature determined human intelligence and ability, as well as the individual's proper place in society. An individual's place in society was somewhat flexible, and working for the government was one way a person could rise in status. The Chinese established the world's first system whereby individuals were selected for government service on the basis of merit and education. Written examinations tested the competence and skill of those who sought government office. Such a system persisted for centuries and became the basis for an aristocracy of merit that has characterized Chinese culture well into modern times.
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