Answer to Question 1
The two prominent political philosophies in the United States are liberalism and conservatism. Conservatives tend to resist change. They emphasize tradition and believe that rapid change usually results in more negative than positive consequences. In economic matters, conservatives feel that government should not interfere with the workings of the marketplace. They encourage the government to support (for example, through tax incentives), rather than regulate, business and industry in society. A free-market economy is thought to be the best way to ensure prosperity and fulfillment of individual needs. Conservatives embrace the old adage that government governs best which governs least. They believe that most government activities constitute grave threats to individual liberty and to the smooth functioning of the free market. Conservatives generally view individuals as autonomous. Regardless of what a person's situation is, or what his or her problems are, each person is thought to be responsible for his or her own behavior. People are thought to choose whatever they are doing, and they therefore are viewed as responsible for whatever gains or losses result from their choices. People are thought to possess free will, and thus can choose to engage in behaviors such as hard work that help them get ahead or activities such as excessive leisure that contribute to failure. Poverty and other personal problems are seen as the result of laziness, irresponsibility, or lack of self-control. Conservatives believe that social welfare programs force hardworking, productive citizens to pay for the consequences of the irresponsible behavior of recipients of social welfare services. Conservatives generally advocate a residual approach to social welfare programs. They believe that dependency is a result of personal failure and that it is natural for inequality to exist among humans. They assert that the family, the church, and gainful employment should be the primary defenses against dependency. Social welfare should be only a temporary function that is used sparingly; prolonged social welfare assistance will lead recipients to become permanently dependent. Conservatives also believe that charity is a moral virtue and that the fortunate are obligated to help the less fortunate become productive, contributing citizens in a society. If government funds are provided for health and social welfare services, conservatives advocate that such funding should go to private organizations, which are thought to be more effective and efficient than public agencies in providing services. Conservatives revere the traditional nuclear family and try to devise policies to preserve it. They see the family as a source of strength for individuals and as the primary unit of society. They generally oppose abortion, sex education in schools, equal rights for gays and lesbians, public funding of daycare centers, birth control counseling for minors, and other measures that might undermine parental authority or support alternative family forms such as single parenthood.
In contrast, liberals believe that change is generally good, as it usually brings progress. Moderate change is best. They view society as needing regulation to ensure fair competition among various interests. In particular, a free-market economy is viewed as needing regulation to ensure fairness. Government programs, including social welfare programs, are necessary to help meet basic human needs. Liberals advocate government action to remedy social deficiencies and to improve human welfare. They feel that government regulation and intervention are often required to safeguard human rights, to control the excesses of capitalism, and to provide equal chances for success. They emphasize egalitarianism and the rights of minorities. Liberals generally adhere to an institutional view of social welfare. They assert that because modern society has become so fragmented and complex and because traditional institutions have been unable to meet emerging human needs, few individuals can now function without the help of social services (including work training, job placement services, child care, health care, and counseling). Liberals believe that the personal problems encountered by someone are generally due to causes beyond that person's control. Causes are generally sought in the person's environment. For example, a child with a learning disability is thought to be at risk only if he or she is not receiving appropriate educational services to accommodate the disability. In such a situation, liberals would seek to develop educational services to meet the child's learning needs. Liberals view the family as an evolving institution and therefore are willing to support programs that assist emerging family forms such as single-parent families and same-sex marriages.
Answer to Question 2
Currently, there are two conflicting views of the role of social welfare in our society. One of these roles has been termed residual-a gap-filling or first-aid role. This view holds that social welfare services should be provided only when an individual's needs are not properly met through other societal institutions, primarily the family and the market economy. According to the residual view, social services and financial aid should not be provided until all other measures or efforts have been exhausted, including the individual's and his or her family's resources. In addition, this view asserts that funds and services should be provided on a short-term basis (primarily during emergencies) and should be withdrawn when the individual or the family again becomes capable of being self-sufficient.
The residual view has been characterized as charity for unfortunates. Funds and services are seen not as a right (something that one is entitled to) but as a gift, with the receiver having certain obligations; for example, to receive financial aid, recipients may be required to perform certain low-grade work assignments. Associated with the residual view is the belief that the causes of clients' difficulties are rooted in their own malfunctioning-that is, clients are to blame for their predicaments because of personal inadequacies, ill-advised activities, or sins. Conservatives generally advocate a residual approach to social welfare programs. They believe that dependency is a result of personal failure and that it is natural for inequality to exist among humans.
The opposing point of view, the institutional view, holds that social welfare programs are to be accepted as a proper, legitimate function of modern industrial society in helping individuals achieve self-fulfillment. Under this view, there is no stigma attached to receiving funds or services; recipients are viewed as being entitled to such help. Associated with this view is the belief that an individual's difficulties are due to causes largely beyond his or her control (for example, a person may be unemployed because of a lack of employment opportunities). When difficulties arise, causes are sought in the environment (society), and efforts are focused on improving the social institutions within which the individual functions. Liberals generally adhere to an institutional view of social welfare. They assert that because modern society has become so fragmented and complex and because traditional institutions have been unable to meet emerging human needs, few individuals can now function without the help of social services.
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