Answer to Question 1
The three components of expectancy theory are valence, instrumentality, and expectancy.
Valence is the desirability of an outcome to an individual. Valences may be either positive or negative and may vary in size or magnitude. Positive valences are desirable outcomes and include rewards, whereas negative valences are undesirable outcomes.
Instrumentality is the worker's perception about the extent to which performance of one or more behaviors will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome. Instrumentality represents the association between the behavior and the outcome and, as such, can range from -1 to +1. An instrumentality of +1 means performance of that behavior will certainly produce the associated outcome. An instrumentality of -1 means performance of that behavior will certainly not produce the associated outcome.
Expectancy is the perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance. Because expectancy represents the chance that exerting a certain amount of effort will result in a certain level of performance, it is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. An expectancy of zero (
Answer to Question 2
This modified model of Easton’s systems theory puts government decision makers as the source of pol
Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, Central Park, New York City.
According to Kohlberg’s theory, only a few individuals, such as Martin Luther King, Jr. (left) and ...
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