Diagnosis of heart failure cannot be made by symptoms alone because many disorders share the same symptoms. The most specific and sensitive diagnostic test for heart failure is:
1. Chest x-rays that show cephalization and measure heart size
2. Two-dimensional echocardiograms that identify structural anomalies and cardiac dysfunction
3. Complete blood count, blood urea nitrogen, and serum electrolytes that facilitate staging for end-organ damage
4. Measurement of brain natriuretic peptide to distinguish between systolic and diastolic dysfunction
Question 2
Angiotensin-converting-enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are a central part of the treatment of heart failure because they have more than one action to address the pathological changes in this disorder.
Which of the following pathological changes in heart failure is NOT addressed by ACE inhibitors?
1. Changes in the structure of the left ventricle so that it dilates, hypertrophies, and uses energy less efficiently.
2. Reduced formation of cross-bridges so that contractile force decreases.
3. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system that increases heart rate and preload.
4. Decreased renal blood flow that decreases oxygen supply to the kidneys.
Summation of Heart Sounds, Aortic Ejection Click
Signs and symptoms of breathing difficulty.
Select Signs and Symptoms of Feeding and Eating Disorders
Mechanisms of action of drugs used for heart failure.
Share of Hours Worked by Education Level, 1940–2008
Mechansim of actions of drugs used to treat heart failure