Answer to Question 1
Group polarization means that the initial leaning or preference of a group prior to its discussions will be strengthened during the group's interactions. This is caused by two basic psychological forces:
1) Social comparisonpeople want to be a good group member, so whatever is the prototypical opinion, they adopt an even better opinion (e.g., in a group of liberals, better would mean more liberal).
2) Arguments made during discussion are more likely to favor the group's initial preferencethus, a group member is going to repeatedly hear an appeal to a systematic examination, leading him or her to believe that is the correct view.
Answer to Question 2
You want to reduce the opponent's aspirations (i.e., they are convinced it can't get everything it wants). To do this, 1) begin with an offer very favorable to your side, 2) then convince the opponent that your break-even point is much higher than it is (so the opponent will offer more), and finally, 3) convince the other side you can go elsewhere and get better terms. People often approach negotiations from a win-lose standpoint, but a win-win approach produces better results. In this approach, both sides come away with something of value, often saving face for bargainers. A bargain reached this way is termed an integrative agreement.
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Mechanisms of pain at the nociceptor level
The Serial Position Effect
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Effect of a Tax
Smoking’s effect on lungs