Answer to Question 1
Answer:
Self-defeating patterns of attributions involves seeing negative outcomes as internally caused and positive outcomes as largely due to external factors (e.g., luck). In order to change this pattern, therapists attempt to have depressed individuals take credit for their successes and acknowledge the uncontrollable nature and potential for external or situational causes for their failures.
Answer to Question 2
Answer:
When negative events occur, we attempt to attribute these negative events to external causes, rather than to blame ourselves. This is part of the self-serving bias which indicates we attribute positive outcomes internally and negative outcomes to external causes. Using the Ultimatum game, some researchers found that when receiving a negative outcome participants were more likely to believe they were playing with a human partner rather than a computer partner. Believing that there is an external causal agent creating this negative outcome allows participants to make an external attribution, that person is being unfair. It is more difficult to believe that a mere machine could be responsible for the negative situation.
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Epigenetic changes to DNA, such as methylation, change patterns of gene expression by activating or