Answer to Question 1
Invariance of sequence. Evidence consistent with Kohlberg's assertion that the stages of moral development occur in an invariant sequence includes (a) cross-cultural evidence that adolescents and young adults reason at higher levels than do children, (b) the interdependence of moral development on the invariant sequences of cognitive development, (c) evidence indicating that individuals typically show upward movement in Kohlbergs stages after exposure to reasoning more mature than their own and show rejection of reasoning at levels lower than their own, and (d) the finding that subjects studied over a 20-year period progressed through stages in an orderly fashion and did not skip stages.
Relationship between moral reasoning and moral behavior. The relationship between moral behavior and reasoning has been found to improve with age, but to not typically be more than a moderate one. The discrepancy is not viewed as a threat to the integrity of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning since it is based on hypothetical dilemmas and does not directly assess what an individual would actually do. The discrepancy between actual behavior and moral reasoning on Kohlberg's tasks does suggest that sampling from a broader range of dilemmas might strengthen the theory. Also useful would be a specification in the theory of the factors that combine with the level of moral reasoning to predict moral behavior.
Sex differences in levels of morality. Some studies have found the average adult female to be at Kohlberg's stage three and the average male at stage four. Gilligan has argued that this gender difference reflects the fact that the theory was developed entirely on the basis of male responses to the dilemmas. She argues that female moral reasoning may be qualitatively different and that because of the male-response basis for stage definitions, advanced levels of feminine moral reasons would be overlooked. Recent studies by Walker and others have not supported Gilligan's claim that there are sex differences in moral reasoning.
Answer to Question 2
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