Answer to Question 1
Individualism/collectivism is the most prominent theme of cross-cultural psychology. Each worldwide culture can be scaled on this dimension. Individualism means that psychological interests, rewards, and expectations are focused on the person, rather than on larger social groupings. Examples of individualistic cultures include Western industrialized countries such as mainstream America, Canada, European countries, or Australia. Individualism pervades all of American society, and it is shown in many ways: the legal system's concern for individuals' rights, emphasis given to the child's individuality, uniqueness, and interests, and the use of the term individual as a consistently complementary term. The self-concept for individualists is centered on that person's qualities and how they make him or her different from others. Traits are personal and unique. Individualists' bragging about themselves is accepted, especially when personal achievements are impressive. Collectivism means that one's identity is based on group memberships rather than on personal traits; examples of collectivistic societies include China, Japan, other Asian countries, traditional African societies, and other areas of the third world. Native American tribes are more collectivistic than mainstream America. For collectivists, cooperation and support of group goals are important. Fitting in with the group is valued, and nonconformity is discouraged. Learning about others tends to focus on the other person's affiliations and status within important groups. Self-sacrifice for group goals is valued. For collectivists, modesty and even self-effacement is expected.
Answer to Question 2
A
Emotional Knowledge Across Cultures
Contrast of ventilation and external and internal respiration.
How lateral inhibition produces contrast enhancement. (Based on Ratliff, 1972.)
The responses of an on-center cell to contrast.
Bar-eye phenotypes in contrast to the wild-type eye in Drosophila