Answer to Question 1
Material culture consists of the physical or tangible creations that
members of a society make, use, and share. Initially, items of material
culture begin as raw materials or resources such as ore, trees, and oil.
Through technology, these raw materials are transformed into usable items (ranging from
books and computers to guns and tanks). Sociologists define technology as the knowledge,
techniques, and tools that make it possible for people to transform resources into usable
forms, and the knowledge and skills required to use them after they are developed.
At the most basic level, material culture is important because it is our buffer against the
environment. Nonmaterial culture consists of the abstract or intangible human creations of
society that influence people's behavior. Language, beliefs, values, rules of behavior, family
patterns, and political systems are examples of nonmaterial culture. A central component of
nonmaterial culture is beliefsthe mental acceptance or conviction that certain things are
true or real. Beliefs may be based on tradition, faith, experience, scientific research, or some
combination of these.
Answer to Question 2
Etzioni classified formal organizations into three categories: normative, coercive, and
utilitarianbased on the nature of membership in each. We voluntarily join normative
organizations when we want to pursue some common interest or gain personal
satisfaction or prestige from being a member. Political parties, ecological activist
groups, religious organizations, parentteacher associations, and college sororities and
fraternities are examples of normative organizations. Class, gender, and race are
important determinants of a person's participation in a normative organization. People
do not voluntarily become members of coercive organizationsassoci ations that people
are forced to join. Total institutions, such as boot camps, prisons, and some mental
hospitals, are examples of coercive organizations. The assumed goal of total institutions
is to resocialize people through incarceration. We voluntarily join utilitarian
organizations when they can provide us with a material reward we seek. To make a
living or earn a college degree, we must participate in organizations that can provide us
these opportunities. Although we have some choice regarding where we work or
attend school, utilitarian organizations are not always completely voluntary. For
example, most people must continue to work even if the conditions of their employment
are less than ideal.
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Triumphal Entry, page from a manuscript of Firdawsi's Shahnamah, Persian, Safavid culture.
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