Answer to Question 1
Erikson believed that psychosocial development occurred in response to a series of psychosocial conflicts. If each conflict was resolved successfully, healthy development could proceed. However, if there was a problem, future development might be compromised. The earliest stage is trust vs. mistrust, occurring during
infancy. If trust develops, the infant learns that the world is a safe place and his or her needs will be met. However, if there are problems such as needs not being met, a sense of mistrust will prevail. The next stage, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, is associated with toddlerhood. Autonomy refers to developing a sense of independence and a willingness to try new things. This occurs when the child is encouraged in
his/her terrible two efforts. However, if there is not an opportunity to explore and try new things, or if encouragement is not provided, a sense of shame and doubt will result. The third stage is initiative vs. guilt, associated with the preschool year. In this stage, the child is learning to initiate and carry out actions. Healthy development occurs as the child's efforts are successful and met with praise. Consistent failures, especially accompanied by ridicule or criticism, leads to feelings of guilt. Finally, industry vs. inferiority is the focus of the elementary school years. The major challenge is becoming productive, involved, and competent.
Answer to Question 2
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Normal development of posture and spinal curves. (A) Toddler: Protruding abdomen; lumbar lordosis. (
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