Answer to Question 1
John Van Mannen and Edgar Schein investigated the different ways in which groups socialize their members. How groups socialize newcomers, in turn, influences the role orientation that newcomers adopt. Role orientation is the characteristic way in which members of a group respond to various situations. For example, do members react passively and obediently to commands and orders? Are they creative and innovative when it comes to finding solutions to problems?
Van Mannen and Schein identified six pairs of contrasting socialization tactics that influence a newcomer's learning and role orientation. The use of these tactics leads to two different role orientations: institutionalized and individualized. In an institutionalized role orientation, newcomers are taught to respond to situations in the same way that existing group members respond to similar situations. An institutional orientation encourages obedience and conformity to existing roles, rules, and norms. Newcomers who have an institutionalized orientation are more likely to engage in role taking rather than in role making because this orientation emphasizes the importance of following existing ways of doing things.
In an individualized role orientation, individuals are taught that it is acceptable and desirable to be creative and to experiment with changing how the group does things. Although group members still need to learn and follow existing roles, rules, and norms, they realize that these ways of controlling behavior are not cast in stone and that the group will consider changing them if a more effective way of behaving is identified. Members with an individualized orientation tend to engage more in role making rather than in role taking.
Answer to Question 2
Deviation from a norm (deviance) occurs when a member of a group violates a norm. Because deviance can be an impetus for change and improvement, how groups respond to deviance can be an important determinant of group effectiveness.
Groups usually respond to deviance in one of three ways. First, the group might try to get the deviant to change; for example, by explaining why the norm is so important, pointing out that other group members are observing the norm, or reprimanding and punishing the deviant. Second, the group might reject or try to expel the deviant. Third, the group might actually change the norm in question to be more in line with the deviant's behavior.
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