Answer to Question 1
The stress response is mediated by several hormones, which are released into the blood soon after the onset of injury. The catecholamines stimulate heart muscle, raise blood pressure, and increase metabolic rate. Epinephrine also promotes glucagon secretion from the pancreas, prompting the release of nutrients from storage. The steroid hormone cortisol enhances muscle protein degradation, raising amino acid levels in the blood and making amino acids available for conversion to glucose. All of these hormones have similar effects on glucose and fat metabolism, causing the breakdown of glycogen, the production of glucose from amino acids, and the breakdown of triglycerides in adipose tissue. Thus, the combined effects of these hormones contribute to hyperglycemia, which often accompanies critical illness. Two other hormones induced by stress, aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone, help to maintain blood volume by stimulating the kidneys to reabsorb more sodium and water, respectively. Cortisol's effects can be detrimental when stress is prolonged. In excess, cortisol causes the depletion of protein in muscle, bone, connective tissue, and the skin. It impairs wound healing, so high cortisol levels may be especially dangerous for a patient with severe injuries. Because cortisol inhibits protein synthesis, consuming more protein cannot easily reverse tissue losses. Excess cortisol also leads to insulin resistance, contributing to hyperglycemia, and suppresses immune responses, increasing susceptibility to infection.
Answer to Question 2
C
Reprogramming Factors in stem cells
Hormonal control of the male reproductive hormones
Steps in the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.
The responses of an on-center cell to contrast.
Compressibility factors of gases and vapors.
Conversion factors derivation.