Answer to Question 1
Punishment is most likely to be effective in decreasing aggression when it immediately
follows the aggressive behavior, when it is strong enough to be perceived by the
aggressor as a real deterrent, when it is applied consistently, and when it is perceived
by the aggressor as fair and legitimate. In the absence of these conditions, punishment
is less likely to be effective and may even be counterproductive. Punishment is also
less likely to be effective if the aggressor is engaged in instrumental aggression and
thus cannot see any way of obtaining a desired goal other than through aggression, or if
the aggressor is engaged in an act of emotional aggression and continues to be very
angry. Finally, the person being punished may perceive the punishment itself
(particularly if it is delivered in a hostile manner) as a model of aggression, leading the
person to imitate the behavior and thus act aggressively. This latter point is consistent
with social learning theory, which maintains that behavior is learned through imitation of
others as well as through direct experience of rewards and punishments. For example,
a parent who uses aggression to punish a child may act as a model for the child,
unintentionally teaching the child that aggression is an accepted way of dealing with
problems or conflicts.
Answer to Question 2
d
Paland and Lynch demonstrated the importance of sexual reproduction in reducing the frequency of mal
The same star field photographed with (a) a ground-based telescope, which is subject to poor seeing
Conditions Treated by Physical Therapy
Nursing Interventions to Promote Effective Health Maintenance
Hormones and Aggression
Hill plots of oxygen binding for myoglobin and hemoglobin under physiological conditions