Answer to Question 1
Labeling theory states that deviance is a socially constructed process in which social
control agencies designate certain people as deviants, and they, in turn, come to accept
the label placed upon them and begin to act accordingly. Based on the symbolic
interactionist theory of Cooley and Mead, labeling theory focuses on the labels that
people are given in their interactions with others. Becker argues that the rules for what
constitutes deviant or conventional behavior are made by moral entrepreneurs who use
their own perspectives on right and wrong to establish the rules by which they expect
other people to live. Moral entrepreneurs have greater power than others and the
ability to label nonconformists deviant. Lemert outlined three stages in the labeling
process: (1) primary deviance refers to the initial act of rule breaking (2) secondary
deviance occurs when a person who has been labeled deviant accepts that new identity
and continues the deviant behavior and (3) tertiary deviance occurs when a person
who has been labeled a deviant seeks to normalize the behavior by relabeling it as
nondeviant.
Answer to Question 2
c
Anna Freud’s Instinctual Theory
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