Answer to Question 1
The characteristics of bureaucracies are (1 ) clear levels with assignments flowing downward and accountability flowing upward; (2 ) a division of labor; (3 ) written rules; (4 ) written communications and records; and (5 ) impersonality and replaceability. The university bureaucratic structure flows neatly and logically from the board of governors to the faculty and maintenance staff. There is a clear and enforced division of labor. Faculty members do not paint offices and electricians do not teach courses. All universities have a host of written rules, including student handbooks, how to apply for grants, and other guidelines for students, faculty, and staff. The computerization of records has virtually eliminated written records but has increased the volume of data stored. When students enter a university, they are essentially starting over. If faculty members suffer debilitating injuries or illnesses, they are replaced within a few days. Additional defense of the university as a bureaucracy may be applied.
Answer to Question 2
Bureaucracies qualify as formal organizations because they are secondary groups designed to achieve specific objectives. Not all formal organizations are bureaucracies, however. A formal organization may share some of the characteristics of a bureaucracy without qualifying as being one. Some formal organizations, such as voluntary groups, are based on mutual interest rather than efficiency. Voluntary organizations are also less formal, more personal, and less hierarchical than a bureaucracy.
Characteristics of the three types of muscles.
Characteristics of Muscle Fibers
Characteristics of an effective leader
Characteristics of NREM and REM sleep
Representative pedigrees for two characteristics, each followed through three generations
Characteristics of Some Protist Groups