Answer to Question 1
Phrenology: Phrenology was popular until the turn of the 20th century. Phrenologists maintained that criminal behavior was related to the size and shape of the human skull. They closely scrutinized the grooves, ridges, and number of bumps on a skull. The shape of the brain, which was influenced by the shape of the skull, was thought to be sufficient to predict criminal activity. Although there were isolated incidents in which offenders with criminal-prone skulls were treated more harshly than other offenders, this approach was not widely incorporated into correctional systems. Scientific studies have found no evidence of correlations between criminal behavior and the shape of the skull.
Lombrosian Theory: Around the beginning of the 20th century, biological/constitutional theories were popular. The prototype of such theories was Cesare Lombroso's theory of the born criminal. This school maintained that a criminal inherits certain physical abnormalities or stigmata, such as a scanty beard, low sensitivity to pain, distorted nose, large lips, or long arms. The more such stigmata a person had, the more he or she was thought to be predisposed to a criminal career. People with several stigmata were thought to be unable to refrain from criminal activity unless their social environment was unusually favorable. The theory that criminals have distinct physical characteristics was refuted by Charles Goring, who found no significant physical differences in a study comparing several thousand criminals with several thousand noncriminals.
Mental Deficiency Theory: The mental deficiency theory replaced the Lombrosian school when the latter fell into disrepute. Mental deficiency theory asserted that criminal behavior resulted from feeblemindedness, which was alleged to impair the capacity to acquire morality and self-control or to appreciate the meaning of laws. As mental tests became standardized and widely used, it was discovered that many criminals achieved average or above-average intelligence scores. The theory waned in popularity in the 1930s. Neither the Lombrosian nor the mental deficiency approach had a lasting, significant effect on corrections.
Morphological Theory: Closely related to the mental deficiency and Lombrosian theories is morphological theory, which asserted that there is a fundamental relationship between psychological makeup and physical structure. The most popular variant of this theory was William Sheldon's, developed in the 1940s. Sheldon described three body categories: endomorph (obese), mesomorph (muscular), and ectomorph (lean). To the mesomorph he ascribed an unusual propensity to criminal activity. Sheldon did not assert that mesomorphs were inherently criminally prone. Rather, he asserted that this physique was associated with a distinctive type of temperament, characterized by such traits as love of physical adventure, abundance of restless energy, and enjoyment of exercise. Mesomorphy thus produced energetic, aggressive, and daring types of individuals, such as generals, athletes, and politicians, as well as criminals. Morphological approaches like Sheldon's are still popular in southern European and South American countries. Scientific studies, however, have found little evidence that muscular people are more likely to commit crimes than people who are lean or overweight.
Answer to Question 2
Demonology:
For centuries many nonliterate societies conceived of crime as caused by evil spirits. This belief is commonly referred to as demonology. It was thought that those who engaged in deviant behavior were possessed by the devil. The only way to cure the criminal act was to remove the evil spirit through prayer, through a ritual, or by torture (sometimes to the point of death). This theory is no longer prominent, partly because scientific study has found no evidence that lawbreakers are possessed by evil spirits. Remnants of the theory remain, however, as seen in satanic cults, rock lyrics with satanic themes, and movies depicting people possessed by demons.
Classical theory:
Classical theory asserted that a person makes a decision about whether to engage in criminal activity based on the anticipated balance of pleasure and pain. Each individual was assumed to have a free will and to act solely on the basis of the anticipated hedonistic calculations. Advocates of this school considered this to be a full and exhaustive explanation of causality. Applied to corrections, this approach urged that clear-cut punishments be assigned to each offense so the prospective offender could calculate anticipated pleasures and pains. The penalties assigned were to be slightly more severe than anticipated pleasures to discourage criminal activity.
Marxist-Leninist theory:
Marxist-Leninist theory assumes that all crime results from the exploitation of workers and from intense competition among people. Crime disappears, according to neo-Marxists, when society achieves a classless status. The basic tenet of communism is, From each according to his ability, to each according to his need. Socialist countries (such as Cuba and North Korea) have in the past sought to formulate their societies on the principles advocated by Karl Marx. Class differentials are much less prominent in socialist countries as compared to capitalist nations. Although Marx asserted that crime would be sharply reduced in socialist countries because there would be less class conflict, substantial criminal activity does occur in these countries. The continued existence of crime in socialist countries is not taken by socialists as evidence that the theory is defective; rather, it is explained as being the result of old capitalistic traditions and ideologies and the imperfect application of Marxist theory.
A family pedigree of a recessive trait.
A family pedigree of a dominant trait
The following terms describe types of body movement that occur at the diarthrotic joints
How Safe Is Your State? Violent Crime in the United States
Describe the Conceptual Forecasting Framework in your own words.
Stabilizing selection eliminates extreme forms of a trait