Answer to Question 1
e
Answer to Question 2
The first issue in measuring intelligence is that there is no definitive definition of the concept. For example, Spearman suggested intelligence was composed of a general factor he called g as well as other specific factors. Gardner believes that there are actually eight different types of intelligence. So, there are basic problems in measuring a concept that is not clearly defined. Related to the problem with the definition of intelligence is the issue of validity of tests. A test is valid if it measures what it is designed to measure. Since it is not clear exactly what intelligence is, it is difficult to determine whether a test is valid. However, intelligence tests show good predictive validity in predicting academic achievement and performance on general aptitude tests such as the SAT and GRE. Another major concern in intelligence testing is the notion of cultural bias. There are consistent racial differences in IQ test scores (African Americans score about 15 points below White Americans). Many have suggested this reflects a cultural bias in the way tests are designed, administered, and scored. Attempts to develop culture-fair IQ tests have been somewhat successful, but such tests are not as predictive of future academic success as standard tests. Finally, there are concerns about what intelligence tests are used for and how they are interpreted. Although they do have some ability to predict future academic performance, other factors are important. Also, individuals who score low on IQ tests may be stigmatized. Expectations may be lowered for these individuals and they may never achieve their full potential.
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