Answer to Question 1
ANS: A, C, E
A philosophical group known as essentialists proposed that two concepts must be considered in determining causality: necessary and sufficient. The proposed cause must be necessary for the effect to occur. (The effect cannot occur unless the cause first occurs.) The proposed cause must also be sufficient (requiring no other factors) for the effect to occur. This leaves no room for a variable that may sometimes, but not always, serves as the cause of an effect. Spare the rod and spoil the child. Everybody talks about the weather, but nobody does anything about it. The father effectively decides the gender of the child by passing on either an X or a Y to the offspring.
Answer to Question 2
ANS: A, B, D
Statistical conclusion validity is concerned with whether the conclusions about relationships or differences drawn from statistical analysis are an accurate reflection of the real world. Low statistical power increases the probability of concluding that there is no significant difference between samples when actually there is a difference (type II error, failing to reject a false null) (see Chapter 8 for discussion of the null hypothesis). Most statistical tests have assumptions about the data collected, which include the following: (1) the data are at least at the interval level, (2) the sample was randomly obtained, and (3) the distribution of scores was normal. If these assumptions are violated, the statistical analysis may provide inaccurate results. The risk of type I error increases when the researcher conducts multiple statistical analyses of relationships or differences; this procedure is referred to as fishing.