Answer to Question 1
Affirmative action has been viewed as an important tool for reducing institutional discrimination. Whereas previous efforts were aimed at eliminating individual acts of discrimination, federal measures under the heading of affirmative action have been aimed at procedures that deny equal opportunities, even if they are not intended to be overtly discriminatory. This policy has been implemented to deal with both current discrimination and past discrimination.
It is difficult to answer whether affirmative action has actually helped alleviate employment on the basis of race and gender, given the complexity of the labor market and the fact that other anti-discrimination measures are in place, but it does appear that affirmative action has had a significant impact in the sectors where it has been applied. Sociologist Barbara Reskin reviewed available studies looking at workforce composition in terms of race and gender in light of affirmative action policies. She found that gains in minority employment could be attributed to affirmative action policies. This includes firms mandated to follow affirmative action guidelines and those that took them on voluntarily. There is also evidence that some earnings gains can be attributed to affirmative action. Economists M. V. Lee Badgett and Heidi Hartmann, reviewing 26 other research studies, came to similar conclusions: Affirmative action and other federal compliance programs have had a modest impact, but it is difficult to assess, given larger economic changes such as recessions or the rapid increase in women in the paid labor force.
Answer to Question 2
Answer: A
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