Answer to Question 1
B
Answer to Question 2
After photography made its impact, it was only a matter of time until moving pictures arrived. The earliest public film presentations took place in Europe and the United States in the mid-1890s: in 1895, Thomas Edison was the first American to project moving images onto a screen. In France the brothers Auguste and Louis Lumire perfected the process by which cellulose film ran smoothly in a commercial projector. They pioneered the first cinematic projection in an auditorium equipped with seats and piano accompaniment. These first experiments delighted audiences with moving pictures of everyday subjects.
As film evolved, Hollywood became the center of American cinema. D. W. Griffith, the leading director of his time, made major innovations in cinematic technique. He introduced the use of multiple cameras and camera angles, as well as such new techniques as close-ups, fade-outs, and flashbacks, which, when joined together in an edited sequence, greatly expanded the potential of film narrative and mirrored the developments in modern art, such as cubism. Cinematographers began to use the camera not simply as a disinterested observer, but as a medium for conveying the emotional states of the characters. By 1925 it was apparent that film was destined to become one of the major art forms of the modern era.
Film has proven itself as both a refined artistic medium as well as a vehicle for popular entertainment. Film has paralleled all major movements in art, from total abstraction, to Dada, to impressionism, to cubism, among others. The medium itself is a reflection of modern conceptions of time and space, recording a stream of individual moments that add up to a story.
Answer to Question 3
The music of the early twentieth century shared the Modernist assault on tradition, and most dramatically so in the areas of tonality and meter. Until the late nineteenth century, most music was tonal; that is, structured on a single key or tonal center. However, by the second decade of the twentieth century, musical compositions might be polytonal (having several tonal centers) or atonal (without a tonal center). Further, instead of following a single meter, a modern composition might be polyrhythmic(having two or more different meters at the same time), or (as with Imagist poems) it might obey no fixed or regular metrical pattern. Modern composers tended to reject conventional modes of expression, including traditional harmony and instrumentation, choosing to explore innovative effects based on dissonance, the free use of meter, and the inventive combination of musical instruments, some of which they borrowed from non-Western cultures.
Similarly, changes in modern dance occurred alongside the musical experiments taking place. Choreographer Vaslav Nijinsky aroused great controversy with his choreography for Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring. He took the raw, rhythmic complexity of Stravinsky's score as inspiration for a series of frenzied leaps and wild, wheeling rounds that shocked the audience. The American Martha Graham also rejected the rules and conventions of classical ballet, preferring to explore the expressive power of natural movement. Her dancers were trained to expose the process and techniques of dancing, rather than to conceal displays of physical effort, as was expected in classical dance.
Figure 7.1 shows the rapid decline in the trust of Americans in government since the 1960s. This de
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