Answer to Question 1
Hope theory was introduced by C. R. Snyder as a way to better understand how people move closer to their goals. In his formulation, hope is seen as a combination of cognitive pathways and agency. Pathways refer to the ability to envision one or more routes toward reaching a desired goal and agency refers to the motivational trait-like perception that a wide range of goals will be pursued. Thus, hopeful thinking requires both the perceived ability to generate routes to a goal and the perceived ability/determination to use those routes.
Answer to Question 2
Seligman proposed that whereas some people confronting stressors can learn to be helplessknown as learned helplessness (a passive state analogous to depressed states). Persons in a state of learned helplessness believe that their efforts will not affect outcomes--they expect defeat--because they do not see a relationship between their efforts and results.
Deimos in color on February 21, 2009 by the same (not to scale)
Dose–response relationship
Population genetics sample question
Worldviews Theory
Physiological Stress Response (cont.)
Four kinds of evidence supporting the theory that species evolve.