Answer to Question 1
Answer: A thermometer exposed to direct sunlight will be warmed by absorption of solar radiation and this will cause the temperature to be higher than that in the shade.
Answer to Question 2
Answer: 1. The specific heat of water is about five times as great as that of land.
2. Radiation received at the surface of a water body can penetrate to several tens of meters deep and distribute its energy throughout a very large mass. In contrast, the insolation absorbed by land heats only a very thin, opaque surface layer.
3. The warming of a water surface can be reduced considerably because of the vast supply of water available for evaporation. Because much energy is used in the evaporative process, less warming occurs.
4. Unlike solid land surfaces, water can be easily mixed both vertically and horizontally, allowing energy surpluses from one area to flow to regions of lower temperature.
Evolution of the Sun's luminosity, radius and effective temperature compared to the present Sun
The transition between steps usually occurs at a temperature that would not interfere with cold ...
A typical temperature sensor circuit.
Predicted Temperature Trends Through the 21st Century
Pacific Decadal Oscillation: Temperature in degree Celsius
The Temperature Danger Zone