Answer to Question 1
A
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A proxy variable is a measurable variable that stands in place of the variable of interest. The variable of interest is sometimes impractical to measure because of technical difficulty, excessive expense, ambiguity, abstraction, or multiple facets. In the case of patient outcome, the concept has too many facets to allow a practical enquiry. Length of hospital stay is often chosen when rapidity of response to the pre-morbid state is the study's principal focus. Eligibility for Medicare, staffing ratios, and falls risk are not outcomes: they are, according to Donabedian's framework, structures of care
Answer to Question 2
B
Pulmonary function test: spirometry. (a) Normal respiratory volumes, as measured during spirometry.
Health care - patient-centered
A pacemaker in a patient’s chest.
Performing a Spirometry Test to Measure Forced Vital Capacity
Biology Concept Framework
Illustration of the anatomy of a normal subject (A) and a patient with sleep apnea (B)