Answer to Question 1
Most vitamin B12 deficiencies reflect inadequate absorption, not poor intake. Inadequate absorption typically occurs for one of two reasons: a lack of hydrochloric acid or a lack of intrinsic factor. Without hydrochloric acid, the vitamin is not released from the dietary proteins and so is not available for binding with the intrinsic factor. Without the intrinsic factor, the vitamin cannot be absorbed.
Answer to Question 2
Like thiamin, riboflavin serves as a coenzyme in many reactions, most notably in energy metabolism. The coenzyme forms of riboflavin are FMN (flavin mononucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide); both can accept and then donate two hydrogens.
Riboflavin deficiency most often accompanies other nutrient deficiencies. Lack of the vitamin causes inflammation of the membranes of the mouth, skin, eyes, and GI tract. Excesses of riboflavin appear to cause no harm, and no UL has been established.
The greatest contributions of riboflavin come from milk and milk products. Whole-grain or enriched grains are also valuable sources because of the quantities people typically consume. When riboflavin sources are ranked by nutrient density (per kcalorie), many dark green, leafy vegetables (such as broccoli, turnip greens, asparagus, and spinach) appear high on the list.
Ultraviolet light and irradiation destroy riboflavin. For these reasons, milk is sold in cardboard or opaque plastic containers, instead of clear glass bottles. In contrast, riboflavin is stable to heat, so cooking does not destroy it.
Three ways that factors affect mortality in response to changes in population density.
Vitamin D Pathway'
Neuropeptides and Peripheral Peptides Involved in Control of Food Intake and Metabolism
Common Risk Factors
Major regulatory factors controlling pyruvate dehydrogenase and the citric acid cycle
Functions of Vitamin D Vitamin D Helps Bone Health by Regulating Calcium and Phosphorus