Answer to Question 1
Positive and negative reinforcement are similar in that they both produce increases in future target behavior. Positive and negative reinforcement are different in that positive reinforcement involves the presentation of a desired stimulus following a target behavior, whereas negative reinforcement involves the termination of an aversive stimulus following a target behavior.
Answer to Question 2
This statement means that the ethical concerns about negative reinforcement are not unique to negative reinforcement. Similar concerns also exist for positive reinforcement. Specifically, in both cases, an establishing operation must be in effect to motivate a person to engage in a response that will produce reinforcement. The establishing operation for positive reinforcement involves depriving the individual of desired stimuli in order to motivate the individual to engage in a behavior that will produce that desired stimulus. For example, assume that the presentation of food is a positive reinforcer for saying, Can I have something to eat? In order to motivate a person to ask for food, he/she must be hungry and, therefore, deprived of food. For negative reinforcement, the establishing operation involves the presence of an aversive stimulus in order to motivate the individual to engage in a behavior that will terminate that stimulus. For example, assume that the termination of task demands is a negative reinforcer for saying, Can I have a break, please? In order to motivate the person to ask for a break, task demands
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Positive and Negative Stereotypes
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Positive and negative selection during T-cell development.
Flow data for a healthy donor (top panel) and a HIV positive patient. CD3 is a T-cell marker, CD4 is ...